2.D.MARKET FAILURE

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​2.D.MARKET FAILURE

The meaning of market failure and externalities
  • Analyse the concept of market failure as a failure of the market to achieve allocative efficiency, resulting in an over-allocation of resources (over-provision of a good) or an under-allocation of resources (under-provision of a good).
  • Describe the concepts of marginal private benefits (MPB), marginal social benefits (MSB), marginal private costs (MPC) and marginal social costs (MSC).
  • Describe the meaning of externalities as the failure of the market to achieve a social optimum where MSB = MSC. 
Negative externalities of production and consumption
  • Explain, using diagrams and examples, the concepts of negative externalities of production and consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption of a good or service.
  • Explain that demerit goods are goods whose consumption creates external costs.
  • Evaluate, using diagrams, the use of policy responses, including market-based policies (taxation and tradable permits) and government regulations, and the problem of negative externalities of production and consumption.
Positive externalities of production and consumption
  • Explain, using diagrams and examples, the concepts of positive externalities of production and consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption of a good or service.
  • Explain that merit goods are goods whose consumption creates external benefits.




Watch the following video and stop the video at .... iN GROUPS DISCUSS 4 SUGGESTIONS FOR INCENTIVES A VACCINE AND ITS CONSUMPTION.

10 Ways Humans Impact the Environment

How do humans impact the environment? What are the biggest environmental effects by the human? Take a look at 10 ways humans have left a footprint that has forever changed the environment and the planet.

The known unknowns of plastic pollution

MR MCGUIRE had just one word for young Benjamin, in "The Graduate": plastics. It was 1967, and chemical engineers had spent the previous decade devising cheap ways to splice different hydrocarbon molecules from petroleum into strands that could be moulded into anything from drinks bottles to Barbie dolls.

Why Mexico City's pollution problem is so hard to solve

MEXICO'S capital is not a great place to be an asthmatic. Its levels of ozone, a pollutant which can damage lung tissue and cause breathing difficulties, are the highest of any city in Mexico and well beyond the recommended limits of the World Health Organisation.

The QWERTY myth

AT A conference attended the other day by your reporter, a distinguished academic economist (who had better remain nameless) cited the "QWERTY" layout of the standard typewriter keyboard as a clear example of how markets "can make mistakes". It may have been the millionth such reference.

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Externalities

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MSB=MSC = ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY
EXTERNAL COSTS
THIRD-PARTIES

​



Negative externalities of production and consumption
  • Explain, using diagrams and examples, the concepts of negative externalities of production and consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption of a good or service.
  • Explain that demerit goods are goods whose consumption creates external costs.
  • Evaluate, using diagrams, the use of policy responses, including market-based policies (taxation and tradable permits) and government regulations, and the problem of negative externalities of production and consumption.
Positive externalities of production and consumption
  • Explain, using diagrams and examples, the concepts of positive externalities of production and consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption of a good or service.
  • Explain that merit goods are goods whose consumption creates external benefits.

Negative externalities

THE logic behind congestion pricing-tolling roads to maintain free-flowing traffic conditions-is pretty straightforward. When a driver enters a road space, he receives some benefit (the mobility provided by the road) and faces some cost (the expense of driving, including time cost).

What are the costs of gun ownership?

I WASN'T sure what to expect from the Porcupine Freedom Festival, but I was delighted by what I found. At this annual gathering of libertarians, anarchists and jovial "freedom-lovers", the conversations were thoughtful, the atmosphere festive and the bonhomie infectious.

Are big infrastructure projects castles in the air or bridges to nowhere?

IF THERE is a consensus right now in American politics, it must be that infrastructure spending is a good thing. It employs workers, improves economic efficiency and, at the moment, can be financed at rock-bottom bond yields. So why don't governments get on with it? The problem is multi-faceted.

A brewing fight

EARLIER this year, when a lawsuit accused Anheuser-Busch of selling watered-down beer, it caused only a minor buzz. America's biggest breweries have long produced flavourless tipples. And anyway, those seeking a more robust brew have plenty of options.

Positive externalities

Positive externalities of production and consumption
  • Explain, using diagrams and examples, the concepts of positive externalities of production and consumption, and the welfare loss associated with the production or consumption of a good or service.
  • Explain that merit goods are goods whose consumption creates external benefits.
Task 1: From the images below, draw a diagram for a positive consumption externality and production externality from the examples below:
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Public Goods

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RIVALRY
​NON-EXCLUDABILITY
​DIRECT PROVISION

Public Goods
  • Define a public good.
  • Using the concepts of rivalry and excludability, and, providing examples, distinguish between public goods (non-rivalrous and non-excludable) and private goods (rivalrous and excludable).
  • Explain, with reference to the free rider problem, how the lack of public goods indicates market failure.
  • Discuss the implications of the direct provision of public goods by the government. ​
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Are children a public good?

THIS week's cover story about dealing with low fertility rates is, naturally, a dose of sober good sense. Yet plenty of people are not-so-sensibly panicked these days over thinning national populations with low animal spirits. Earlier this month in The Times, Melanie McDonagh argued for subsidies and tax breaks for breeders, and even half-jokingly suggested an extra levy on the willfully barren.

Universal health insurance is a common good

SINCE the first rumblings of the current move towards universal health care got going two years ago, one of the arguments that's come up is the question of whether health care is a public good.

TOK: IS ACADEMIA FREE FROM MYTHOLOGY?
What is mythology?
How do myths develop?
How important is mythology to indigenous knowledge systems?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of mythology as a source of knowledge in indigenous knowledge?
Does mythology exist in areas of knowledge that you study in the IB?
Does this pose a problem in subjects that refer to themselves as a science?
Are there reasons for myths to persist in scientific subjects even though they may represent false beliefs?

The QWERTY myth

Economists adore a nice case of market failure. The dogged persistence of the standard typewriter keyboard, held to be a technological anachronism, is a great favourite. Yet the charges against QWERTY were long ago disproved AT A conference attended the other day by your reporter, a distinguished academic economist (who had better remain nameless) cited the "QWERTY" layout of the standard typewriter keyboard as a clear example of how markets "can make mistakes".

Solutions to market Failure

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ETS/TRADEABLE PERMITS/CAP AND TRADE SCHEMES (ALL THE SAME THING)
SUBSIDY
INDIRECT-TAX
CONSUMER NUDGES
PUBLIC AWARENSS CAMPAIGNS
REGULATION
MANDATE
DIRECT PROVISION
​CONSUMER SOVERIGNTY
Milton Friedman: A Neo-classical perspective on Market Failure and solutions to Market Failure
Robert Reich and Paul Krugman: A progressive perspective on Market Failure and solutions to Market Failure
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Group 3 Year 12
Group 6 Year 12

Common pool or Common access resources

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RIVALROUS
NON-EXCLUDABLE
TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (GARRETT HARDIN)
ELINOR OSTROOM

SUSTAINABILITY
  • Describe, using examples, common pool/common access resources.
  • Describe sustainability. 
  • Explain that the lack of a pricing mechanism for common access resources means that these goods may be overused/depleted/degraded as a result of activities of producers and consumers who do not pay for the resources that they use, and that this poses a threat to sustainability.
  • Explain, using negative externalities diagrams, that economic activity requiring the use of fossil fuels to satisfy demand poses a threat to sustainability.
  • Explain that the existence of poverty in economically less developed countries creates negative externalities through over-exploitation of land for agriculture, and that this poses a threat to sustainability.
  • Evaluate, using diagrams, possible government responses to threats to sustainability, including legislation, carbon taxes, cap and trade schemes, and funding for clean technologies.


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A simple explanation of the Tragedy of the Commons from Khan Academy

The tragedy of the high seas

IN 1968 an American ecologist, Garrett Hardin, published an article entitled "The Tragedy of the Commons". He argued that when a resource is held jointly, it is in individuals' self-interest to deplete it, so people will tend to undermine their collective long-term interest by over-exploiting rather than protecting that asset.

Question: What distinguishes the economists approach to that of the environmentalist to CAR's?
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Task: Watch the short film about Economist Elinor Ostrom or read through the obituary  below: 
Brainstorm the main features of her ideas and then ponder the following quotation:
"Mrs Ostrom, besides poring over satellite data and quizzing lobstermen herself, enjoyed employing game theory to try to predict the behaviour of people faced with limited resources."
Activity: Create a 'game' that demonstrates Tragedy of the Commons Theory and utilizes a game payout matrix. For ideas read pages 201-203 on the use of Game Theory in Oligopolistic Markets.
What insights does Game Theory reveal about the nature of Common Access Resources and the threat to them?

Elinor Ostrom

IT SEEMED to Elinor Ostrom that the world contained a large body of common sense. People, left to themselves, would sort out rational ways of surviving and getting along. Although the world's arable land, forests, fresh water and fisheries were all finite, it was possible to share them without depleting them and to care for them without fighting.

Freeing the airwaves

Get our daily newsletter WHAT is the best analogy for radio spectrum? Is it, as most people intuitively believe, a palpable resource like land, best allocated through property rights that can be bought and sold?

Assymetric Behavior

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INFORMED AND UNINFORMED PARTIES
ADVERSE SELECTION
'MARKET FOR LEMONS' GEORGE AKELOV
SCREENING AND SIGNALING
MORAL HAZARD
  • Explain, using examples, that market failure may occur when one party in an economic transaction (either the buyer or the seller) possesses more information than the other party.
  • Evaluate possible government responses, including legislation, regulation and provision of information.
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Thinker: Holiday gift giving; why might an Econ view this as a form of market failure?
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Who had more information Ralphy or Aunt Clara?

Secrets and agents

IN 2007 the state of Washington introduced a new rule aimed at making the labour market fairer: firms were banned from checking job applicants' credit scores. Campaigners celebrated the new law as a step towards equality-an applicant with a low credit score is much more likely to be poor, black or young.

What is information asymmetry?

This week "The Economist explains" blog is given over to economics. For six days until Saturday this blog will publish a short explainer on one seminal economics idea. MARKETS frequently present consumers with products whose quality is difficult to judge in advance.

Genetic testing threatens the insurance industry

IF A genetic test could tell whether you are at increased risk of getting cancer or Alzheimer's, would you take it? As such tests become more accessible, more and more people are saying "yes". The insurance industry faces a few headaches as a result.

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copy_of_asymmetric_information.docx
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MORAL HAZARD
Should the Fidelity Fiduciary Bank receive a government bailout???

The trouble with banks

BANKS have proved themselves to be the most hazardous economic institutions known to man. Breakdowns in banking lie at the centre of most financial crises. And banks are unusually effective at spreading financial distress, once it starts, from one place to another. It it tempting to conclude that banks should simply be abolished.

RBS bailout 'unlikely to be recouped'

Royal Bank of Scotland's chairman has admitted it is "unlikely" the government will get back all the £45.5bn pumped in to the bank. Sir Howard Davies said restructuring costs, losses on loans and selling businesses meant RBS was valued at less than taxpayers paid for their stake.

Second-degree moral hazard

MORAL hazard is a problem that crops up often in economics. People behave differently if they do not face the full costs or risks of their actions: deposit insurance makes customers less careful about picking their bank, for example. Moral hazard can also be second-hand. Take medicine.

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ACTIVITY: Read the following article from the Economist explaining why the banking sector is rife with Asymmetric Information, Adverse Selection, Moral Hazard and how intervention by governments can only partially resolve the problem.
banks_and_asymmetric_behavior.docx
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Made with Padlet
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abuse of mONOPOLY power

  • Explain how monopoly power can create a welfare loss and is, therefore, a type of market failure.
  • Discuss possible government responses, including legislation, regulation, nationalisation and trade liberalisation.
Imperfect markets refer to those markets in which firms have some price setting ability. In these situations, consumers have less power to switch away from particular firms, either because there is only a single firm (in the case of a monopoly
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Examples of abuse of monopoly power include:
  • The ability to exploit consumer surplus by using price discrimination.
  • Charging excessively high prices.
  • Collusion – an agreement between firms who hold market power to set higher prices.
  • Predatory pricing – setting prices many times below the costs of production to force rival firms out of the market.
The socially optimum level of output is always reached where the marginal social benefit (MSB) is equal to the marginal social cost (MSC). 
In an imperfect market profits will be maximised when the marginal cost equals marginal revenue (MC = MR). Here the firm's private costs is the same as supply and MSC. They can maximise profits because the additional revenue gained from the sale of an additional unit equal that unit's additional cost, and so profits have stopped growing and reached their maximum level. This results in a lower output, Q1, sold at a price P, as shown in Figure 1. This price is higher than would be optimal at MSC=MSB. As Q* is not reached there is a loss of consumer surplus, which is shown by the yellow triangle, and a loss of producer surplus, shown by the orange triangle. Community surplus is not maximised and therefore there is a market failure.
As the units Q* – Q1 are not produced, even though the MSB is greater than the MSC there is a social welfare loss represented by the sum of both triangles.
Possible government responsesGovernments may try to solve the market failure by ensuring that competitive conditions prevail in markets. They can use:
  1. Legislation
  2. Regulation
  3. Nationalisation
  4. Trade liberalisation

one last thing...
Create a mind-map of all of the market failures we have considered
Ensure that it includes:
DEED
​IMPACT ON RESOURCES ALLOCATION
claspp



The American Healthcare market

To what extent is the American Healthcare market an example of Market Failure?
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